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© Mikko Kytökorpi

Salmon Peoples of the Arctic

May 12, 2025
Arctic PeoplesBiodiversitySaami CouncilConservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna
How the salmon crisis is affecting Indigenous Peoples across the circumpolar North

Article by:
Kristina Bär, Arctic Council Secretariat
Rosa-Máren Magga, Indigenous Peoples’ Secretariat

Salmon has made it on the climate change hit list. Arctic rivers, once brimming with diverse salmon species, are experiencing dramatic declines, with populations plummeting up to 90 percent below the average of past decades. Abandoned fish wheels, nets and boats line the shores, serving as witnesses to a crisis. For many Arctic Indigenous Peoples, salmon is not just a source of physical sustenance; it has nourished communities for centuries, shaping traditions, languages and identities. How did it come this far, and are there solutions for the fish and the Salmon Peoples of the Arctic?

Where the Yukon meets the Anvik River in Alaska lies one of the largest spawning grounds for chum salmon. During most of the 2010s, chum salmon were abundant in this region, but suddenly, in the last five years, the stocks have abruptly declined. Falling to a record low in 2021 – 92 percent below the recent 30-year mean of the watershed, as the Arctic Report Card 2023 states.

A salmon crisis and a state of scarcity for the Indigenous Peoples that have lived off and with salmon along the shores of the Yukon and Anvik Rivers for millennia. Most communities have not been able to fish for the past five years, and many are unlikely to fish for salmon in the years to come as a seven-year moratorium on fishing salmon on the Yukon River was implemented in the spring of 2024.

The chum of the Yukon is one of many salmon stocks that have dramatically declined over the past years. In 2023, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) moved the Atlantic salmon from the list of least concerned to near threatened species with “new evidence showing the global population decreased by 23 percent between 2006 and 2020.”

Salmon are one of the species most affected by climate change, but the stressors and effects on different salmon populations across the Arctic are diverse and complex. On their long migration journey, the fish are exposed to multiple threats, including rising water temperatures, lower river levels, pollution, dams and other barriers, tourism, breeding with escaped farmed salmon, competition with invasive species, trawler bycatch, increased predation and exposure to parasites. These have led to dramatic declines in two Pacific salmon populations, the chum and Chinook salmon, while the sockeye salmon in Bristol Bay, Alaska, has attained record high abundance levels since 2020 – 98 percent above the 30-year average in 2022.2

Yet, for the communities traditionally relying on the chum or other populations in decline, the Bristol Bay boon brings little solace.

“For Sámi and other Indigenous Peoples, salmon is more than food—it’s language, place and identity." - Áslat Holmberg, member and former president of the Saami Council


© Mikko Kytökorpi

More than a Lack of Food: Food Sovereignty vs. Food Security

The collapse of salmon stocks directly impacts the food security of many communities. Freezers are empty, pantries free from cans of salmon. People are not able to eat salmon throughout the winter and thus are losing food security. This also has huge financial implications for individuals living in rural areas. Alaska imports around 98 percent of its food and given that many communities are only accessible by boat or plane, the delivery of groceries is a costly undertaking. Subsistence hunting, fishing and berry-picking is therefore a necessity.

However, thinking of the salmon crisis as a food insecurity issue, would be too reductionist. Food security refers to the availability and access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food. The traditional ways of living with and catching salmon, however, nurture not only the body. Salmon fosters the food sovereignty of many Arctic Indigenous Peoples.

“For Sámi and other Indigenous Peoples, salmon is more than food—it’s language, place and identity. Our fishing traditions carry generations of knowledge, shaping how we relate to the land and waters. When salmon stocks collapse, we lose not only a source of sustenance but also the ability to pass down customs, stories and skills that define who we are. Without sustainable salmon populations, our food security and cultural continuity are both at risk,” said Áslat Holmberg, member and former president of the Saami Council.

Many Arctic Indigenous Peoples have been fishing salmon for millennia, in some regions for at least 12,000 years. Their communities, ways of life, languages and identities are tied to the fish. Many Indigenous Peoples are therefore “Salmon Peoples of the Arctic”, a term which “recognizes the inextricable bond between human and non-human species in the Indigenous worldview,” as the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna’s Salmon Peoples project report stated.

Taa'ąįį Ch'igiiontà', Gwich’in Council International, interviewed during the International Indigenous Salmon Peoples Gathering in Karasjok 2024

“From a very young age, I remember the stories of my late uncles and great uncles harvesting up to a thousand salmon in a single summer to provide for their families and community. It's incredible to hear their stories of how many fish used to run through our rivers. It was really just about putting in our nets or fish wheels, and sometimes, within just a few hours, we had to pull the nets in because of how many fish we caught. But with the steady decline of salmon over the last few decades, it's becoming increasingly challenging for us to put away even a few fish. It got to the point, before we were no longer able to fish, that catching even 20 to 30 king salmon was something to celebrate.”

Traditional Fishing Practices Carry the Brunt

The collapse in stocks affects Salmon Peoples to the core of their cultures and identities. In addition, national and regional regulations and fishing bans meant to protect the fish, disproportionally affect Indigenous subsistence fishing. From Sápmi to North America, traditional fishing practices carry the brunt of conservation efforts. In the Tana Valley between Norway and Finland, Sámi traditional fishing practices have come to a halt following a complete ban in salmon fishing.

In the Yukon-Kuskokwim area in Alaska, Jazmyn Vent, an Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC) youth delegate, conducted a survey for her research and found that 93 percent of people she surveyed think that the closure of subsistence fishing has caused hardship in their life, and 91 percent think that the closure has a negative impact on the health and wellness of their Alaska Native community. “So, the salmon collapse is affecting us on a cultural scale, on an environmental scale and on a food scale,” Vent summarized.

Jazmyn Vent with a pike. While the fish has always been a part of traditional diets, the decline of salmon has made communities become more reliant on other food sources.
© Jazmyn Vent

Nadine Kochuten, Aleut International Association, interviewed during the International Indigenous Salmon Peoples Gathering in Karasjok 2024

“People from my region on the Aleutian Islands and the Russian members of our Aleut family on the Commander Islands all subsist on salmon from the ocean. It's a very important part of our diet and a crucial part of our economy in Alaska. We realize that many places around the world are in crisis, seeing the collapse of their salmon populations, and we are not here to promote our commercial fisheries. We want to hear their stories and understand their situations. We couldn't imagine what it would be like to not be fishing for salmon.”

Co-creating Knowledge for a Future of Arctic Salmon

Local initiatives like the Smokehouse Collective, a mutual aid network co-founded by the former AAC Alaska Chair Deenaalee Hodgdon and Ruth Łchav’aya K’isen Miller, have a take at a more resilient, reliable and ecologically sound food system for Alaska. The team is setting up a traditional fish camp, including a communal fish processing plant, housing, gardens, a community kitchen and a smokehouse. Their hope is to bring community members from the Yukon and other rivers that are lined with abandoned fish wheels, nets and boats to Dillingham in Bristol Bay.

Yet, Bristol Bay salmon fills empty stomachs, not the hole left by the collapse of other salmon stocks. These initiatives are not aimed at and won’t be able to replace the salmon communities have harvested for millennia, they promote a collective approach to making a region more food secure and less reliant on imports. An effort needed in times when other traditional and local foods might face a similar fate to salmon.

In addition, the salmon crisis will have to be addressed at the source of its stressors. Climate mitigation, pollution reduction, ecosystem-based approaches to managing and developing areas and importantly, co-creation of knowledge with the memory, skills and knowledge of the Salmon Peoples in the lead.

Emma Hoogland and Alberta Sam, Kwanlin Dün First Nation (KDFN) Youth Representatives from Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada, attending the Indigenous Salmon Peoples Gathering in Karasjok 2024

“We learned that Indigenous communities across the Nnorthern hemisphere face similar challenges with salmon. […] It’s crucial to align our local conservation efforts with the international initiatives. Salmon are transboundary species and working together with other Indigenous communities can help us tackle these complex issues. […] The inclusion of youth in these discussions is vital. We are the future leaders in salmon conservation and our involvement ensures that our perspectives are considered in planning and decision making. Indigenous-led research and the protection of Indigenous Knowledge systems are essential. Sharing best practices and asserting Indigenous rights are key to sustainable salmon management.”

Indigenous Salmon Peoples Gathering in Sápmi
By Camilla Brattland, UiT the Arctic University of Norway

The International Indigenous Salmon Peoples Gathering Week consisted of three events taking place from 30 September to 4 October 2024: The second International Indigenous Salmon Peoples Gathering, a daytrip and Community Town Hall Meeting in Deanušaldi (Tana Bru) and the Indigenous Salmon Research Symposium in Ohcejohka, Finland. The events were organized by the Sámediggi (Norwegian Sami Parliament), Saami Council, DeanuInstituhtta, Joddu National Wild Salmon Centre, UiT The Arctic University of Norway and the International Indigenous Salmon Peoples Network.

It was a week full of events directed towards understanding and discussing the status and future needs of Indigenous Salmon Peoples. The gathering took the participants along the banks of the Deatnu/ Tana River (“big river” in the Sámi language), which is in a state of crises as salmon fisheries have been closed over the last three years due to low Atlantic salmon returns while experiencing an invasion of pink salmon. The participants familiarized themselves with these and other issues while visiting three communities in Norway and Finland, based on the salmon fishing culture from the mouth of the river (Deanušaldi/Tana bridge) to its tributaries Kárášjohka/Karasjok and Ohcejohka/Utsjoki in Finland (johka meaning river in Sámi language).

For the first part of the gathering week, representatives from Indigenous Salmon Peoples regions in the Arctic, Northwest Pacific and the Atlantic coasts presented regional updates. In addition, invited speakers from the Kwanlin Dun First Nation in the Yukon region gave updates on restoration of Yukon salmon including perspectives from youth.

The second part of the gathering week, in Deanušaldi, was a public meeting open to everyone. Sámi and the Mikma’w shared their experiences around salmon, a panel with local community participants and politicians discussed cultural survival and management responsibilities in the face of salmon decline, and participants joined a workshop on future visions for Arctic Salmon Peoples.

The third part of the week was the Indigenous Salmon Research Symposium in Ohcejohka/Utsjoki, where Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars and knowledge holders gathered. The atmosphere was an Indigenous-style symposium centered on discussion and exchange of experiences across diverse geographies and disciplines and based on the principle of Two-Eyed Seeing. The goal was to empower participants with knowledge and perspectives to take back to civil society, communities, academia, Indigenous and public institutions after the gathering.

The most significant outcome of the gathering was the Indigenous Salmon Peoples Gathering Declaration (the Kárášjohka Salmon Declaration). The Declaration is a guiding framework for decision-making processes, empowering Indigenous Peoples to address the alarming state of salmon in the Northern Hemisphere. It’s the first Indigenous Declaration on salmon and aims to inform salmon policies that can be adapted to different communities, emphasizing the rights, knowledge and stewardship of Indigenous Peoples. The Declaration was endorsed by a majority in the plenary of the Sami Parliament of Norway on the 5 December 2024.

The full document can be found at the Sámediggi and IISPN webpages

Indigenous Salmon Peoples Gathering in Sápmi 2024
© Minetta Westerlund / Arctic Council Secretariat

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